How the COVID-19 Vaccine was Developed
The virus that causes COVID-19 (Corona Virus Disease 2019) came to public knowledge in December 2019 and the world has not been the same since then.
The origins of the virus are being hotly contested at the time of this writing and this article would wisely sidestep those controversies. What is clear is that the virus is an RNA virus which is distinct from DNA viruses. Generally, viruses, unlike other disease-causing classes of organisms such as bacteria, fungi and protozoans are not living organisms and therefore cannot necessarily be killed. Viruses cause disease by entering a living cell and then taking over the machinery of the cell to grow and multiply.
RNA and DNA
Very simply, RNA (Ribo(N)ucleic Acid) and DNA (Deoxyribo Nucleic Acid) are essential molecules in cells which, among other functions produce the molecules (often proteins) that carry out the functions of the cells and therefore the body. Cells are the smallest independently functioning units of the organism. Rudimentarily, biology students are taught that cells make up tissues, tissues make up organs and organs make up an organism.
There are three types of RNA: mRNA (messenger RNA), tRNA (Transfer RNA and rRNA (ribosomal RNA). Generally, the mRNA is a copy of the DNA, the rRNA is part of the ribosome where the proteins are made, and the tRNA transports amino acids to the ribosome to make proteins. Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins. Proteins do a significant amount of heavy lifting in the body. For example, enzymes, which facilitate the chemical reactions in the body are proteins. We would touch on this again.
DNA holds the genetic information of an organism, and that genetic information is used by the RNA to produce the molecules that help the organism exist and function.
What Is A Vaccine
Very few discoveries changed the course of humanity as vaccines did. Before vaccines, humanity had no known proven methods to prevent infection. During the smallpox outbreak, Edward Jenner in 1796 developed the first vaccine when he inoculated a boy with the non-disease-causing cowpox virus and showed that the boy could not get infected by the similar but infectious smallpox virus. (It was not until 1847 that Ignaz Semmelweis showed the life-saving benefits of handwashing).
We know now that vaccines prevent disease by the presence of antibodies. Antibodies prevent the infecting pathogen (virus or bacteria) from taking a foothold in the target organism (human or non-human) by attacking the infecting pathogen when it invades or enters the organism.
Vaccines are either passive or active. A passive vaccine is simply the preformed antibody that is introduced into the organism and is immediately available to defend against the infecting pathogen when it enters the organism. However, because the antibody is foreign to the organism, the organism eventually destroys the passive vaccine or antibody so that the benefits of a passive vaccine are short-lived. These benefits can be very significant, however. For example, the serum of COVID-19 survivors was successfully used in the treatment of newly infected COVID-19 patients during the early months of the outbreak.
Active vaccines on the other hand contain sufficient material from the infecting pathogen to cause the vaccinated person or organism to produce antibodies, but not enough material to cause disease when it is introduced into the organism. This material upon introduction into the organism (by injection or inhalation or under the tongue as examples) causes the organism to produce its own antibodies against the organism. The benefits of these self-produced antibodies include the fact that they are not destroyed by the body as the passive antibodies are, and they are available to defend against disease if the organism is subsequently invaded by the pathogen. Active vaccines could be live attenuated vaccines that contain a weakened form of the pathogen, inactivated vaccines which contain a dead or inactive form of the pathogen or subunit vaccines which are a protein or sugar from the pathogen.
So, How Do Vaccines Get To Market
Normally, making a vaccine can take up to 15 years and the process involves laboratory tests and trials and then clinical trials that can include the following steps
Identifying portions of the virus (or other pathogen) that can cause the organism to produce antibodies when introduced into the body but not cause disease.
Confirming in the laboratory that the antibodies produced cause destruction or containment of the pathogen when they attack it.
Confirming safety of the vaccine in the human or other organism (Phase 1 of the Clinical Trial).
Determining the dose of the vaccine (Phase 2 of the Clinical Trial).
Confirming that vaccine is effective in the human or other organism (Phase 3 of the Clinical Trial). This often takes years.
Applying for license and approval.
Monitoring safety and effectiveness.
But The COVID-19 Vaccine Showed Up in Months …..
And for this, we are thankful to technology, government resources and planning, and good fortune. The COVID-19 virus is a member of the corona virus family. The virus that causes the common cold is also a member of this family. Other members of this family including the SARS virus and the MERS virus had previously caused outbreaks in 2003 and 2012, respectively. As a result, various laboratories had already started working on vaccines against these viruses so that when COVID-19 arrived in 2019, the existing research was simply diverted, repurposed and applied. This research had shown that the spike protein (S-protein) was able to induce a strong and effective antibody response when injected into humans.
Secondly, with Ebola outbreak in 2015, the Coalition For Epidemic Preparedness Innovation (CEPI) was formed to prepare for the next virus outbreak since the Ebola outbreak showed how unprepared we were globally for such an outbreak.
Third, due to the global presence of COVID-19, governments and private entities around the world collaborated more freely to confront the disease so that it was possible to determine the RNA sequence of COVID-19 in 10 days. No small feat!!!
Further, the technology for mRNA vaccine was already well established. Remember that active vaccines are copies of portions of the virus or bacteria that are introduced into the body to cause the body’s immune system to produce antibodies. Remember also that there are three types of RNA: mRNA (messenger RNA), tRNA (Transfer RNA and rRNA (ribosomal RNA). Generally, the mRNA is a copy of the DNA, the rRNA is part of the ribosome where the proteins are made, and the tRNA transports amino acids to the ribosome to make proteins. Well, mRNA vaccine technology specifically causes the body to produce the viral or bacterial protein using the body’s own rRNA, tRNA and ribosome. The body’s immune system then produces the antibodies to these newly created viral protein. These antibodies are the defense against the virus or bacteria. (It is essential to point out that the mRNA vaccine cannot take over the human DNA in the nucleus of the cell where it exists and is protected).
Finally, the bureaucratic regulatory process to approve and license vaccines was accelerated in response to the urgent crisis created by the vaccine.
All of these came together to expedite the development in months, of what would normally have taken years. This was good fortune.
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